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Faeze Fathi/ CALL
Computer-assisted language learning .' '''Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is succinctly defined in a seminal work by Levy as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning". CALL embraces a wide range of '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT '''Information and communications technology]' applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL for example as used in a '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environment virtual learning environment]' and Web-based '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_learning distance learning]. It also extends to the use of '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Corpora_and_concordancers '''corpora and concordancers], interactive whiteboards, Computer-mediated communication (CMC), '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Virtual_worlds '''language learning in virtual worlds], and '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_Assisted_Language_Learning '''Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)]. ' '''The term CALI (Computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the general term CAI (Computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3) and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_language_learning#Professional_associations '''professional associations]' worldwide.' An alternative term, Technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), also emerged around the early 1990s: the TELL Consortium project, University of Hull. The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centred materials that allow learners to work on their own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive learning and individualised learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning process. It can be used to reinforce what has been already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help learners who require additional support. The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist, cognitive, constructivist) and second language learning theories such as Stephen Krashen's '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monitor_hypothesis '''monitor hypothesis].' '''A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blended_learning '''blended learning]. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL ' '''History ' '''CALL dates back to the 1960s, when it was first introduced on university mainframe computers. The PLATO project, initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark in the early development of CALL (Marty 1981). The advent of the microcomputer in the late 1970s brought computing within the range of a wider audience, resulting in a boom in the development of CALL programs and a flurry of publications of books on CALL in the early 1980s. Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices ranging from free to expensive, and other programs are available only through university language courses. There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America. Delcloque (2000) documents the history of CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the new millennium. Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is going. Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally published in the years 1988-2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show promise in doing so in the future. A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found in Language Learning & Technology 14, 3 (2010). ' '''Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of view, namely the evolution of CALL in the dual fields of educational technology and second/foreign language acquisition and the paradigm shifts experienced along the way. ' 'Flashcards ' 'A basic use of CALL is in vocabulary acquisition using '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashcard '''flashcards], which requires quite simple programs. Such programs often make use of '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition '''spaced repetition], a technique whereby the learner is presented with the vocabulary items that need to be committed to memory at increasingly longer intervals until long-term retention is achieved. This has led to the development of a number of applications known as spaced repetition systems (SRS), including the generic '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperMemo '''SuperMemo]' package and programs such as BYKI and phase-6, which have been designed specifically for learners of foreign languages.' Software design and pedagogy ' '''Above all, careful consideration must be given to '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy '''pedagogy]' in designing CALL software, but publishers of CALL software tend to follow the latest trend, regardless of its desirability. Moreover, approaches to teaching foreign languages are constantly changing, dating back to '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar-translation grammar-translation], through the '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_method_(education) '''direct method], '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio-lingual_method '''audio-lingualism]' and a variety of other approaches, to the more recent '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicative_approach communicative approach]' and '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) constructivism]' (Decoo 2001). ' Designing and creating CALL software is an extremely demanding task, calling upon a range of skills. Major CALL development projects are usually managed by a team of people: *'A subject specialist (also known as a content provider) - usually a language teacher - who is responsible for providing the content and pedagogical input. More than one subject specialist is required for larger CALL projects.' *'A programmer who is familiar with the chosen programming language or authoring tool.' *'A graphic designer, to produce pictures and icons, and to advise on fonts, colour, screen layout, etc.' *'A professional photographer or, at the very least, a very good amateur photographer. Graphic designers often have a background in photography too.' *'A sound engineer and a video technician will be required if the package is to contain substantial amounts of sound and video.' *'An instructional designer. Developing a CALL package is more than just putting a text book into a computer. An instructional designer will probably have a background in cognitive psychology and media technology, and will be able to advise the subject specialists in the team on the appropriate use of the chosen technology (Gimeno & Davies 2010). ' CALL inherently supports '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy '''learner autonomy], the final of the eight conditions that Egbert et al. (2007) cite as “Conditions for Optimal Language Learning Environments”. Learner autonomy places the learner firmly in control so that he or she “decides on learning goals” (Egbert et al., 2007, p. 8). ' '''It is all too easy when designing CALL software to take the comfortable route and produce a set of multiple-choice and gap-filling exercises, using a simple authoring tool (Bangs 2011), but CALL is much more than this; Stepp-Greany (2002), for example, describes the creation and management of an environment incorporating a '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory) '''constructivist]' and '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_language whole language]' philosophy. According to constructivist theory, learners are active participants in tasks in which they "construct" new knowledge derived from their prior experience. Learners also assume responsibility for their learning, and the teacher is a facilitator rather than a purveyor of knowledge. Whole language theory embraces constructivism and postulates that language learning moves from the whole to the part, rather than building sub-skills to lead towards the higher abilities of comprehension, speaking and writing. It also emphasises that comprehending, speaking, reading, and writing skills are interrelated, reinforcing each other in complex ways. Language acquisition is, therefore, an active process in which the learner focuses on cues and meaning and makes intelligent guesses. Additional demands are placed upon teachers working in a technological environment incorporating constructivist and whole language theories. The development of teachers’ professional skills must include new pedagogical as well as technical and management skills. Regarding the issue of teacher facilitation in such an environment, the teacher has a key role to play, but there could be a conflict between the aim to create an atmosphere for learner independence and the teacher's natural feelings of responsibility. In order to avoid learners’ negative perceptions, Stepp-Greany points out that it is especially important for the teacher to continue to address their needs, especially those of low-ability learners. ' Multimedia ' '''Language teachers have been avid users of technology for a very long time. Gramophone records were among the first technological aids to be used by language teachers in order to present students with recordings of native speakers’ voices, and broadcasts from foreign radio stations were used to make recordings on reel-to-reel tape recorders. Other examples of technological aids that have been used in the foreign language classroom include slide projectors, film-strip projectors, film projectors, videocassette recorders and DVD players. In the early 1960s, integrated courses (which were often described as multimedia courses) began to appear. ' '''During the 1970s and 1980s standard microcomputers were incapable of producing sound and they had poor graphics capability. This represented a step backwards for language teachers, who by this time had become accustomed to using a range of different media in the foreign language classroom. The arrival of the multimedia computer in the early 1990s was therefore a major breakthrough as it enabled text, images, sound and video to be combined in one device and the integration of the four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading and writin. Examples of CALL programs for multimedia computers that were published for multimedia computers on CD-ROM and DVD from the mid-1990s onwards are described by Davies (2010: Section 3). CALL programs are still being published on CD-ROM and DVD, but Web-based multimedia CALL has now virtually supplanted these media. Following the arrival of multimedia CALL, multimedia language centres began to appear in educational institutions. While multimedia facilities offer many opportunities for language learning with the integration of text, images, sound and video, these opportunities have often not been fully utilised. One of the main promises of CALL is the ability to individualise learning but, as with the language labs that were introduced into educational institutions in the 1960s and 1970s, the use of the facilities of multimedia centres has often devolved into rows of students all doing the same drills (Davies 2010: Section 3.1). There is therefore a danger that multimedia centres may go the same way as the language labs. Following a boom period in the 1970s, language labs went rapidly into decline. Davies (1997: p. 28) lays the blame mainly on the failure to train teachers to use language labs, both in terms of operation and in terms of developing new methodologies, but there were other factors such as poor reliability, lack of materials and a lack of good ideas. ' '''Managing a multimedia language centre requires not only staff who have a knowledge of foreign languages and language teaching methodology but also staff with technical know-how and budget management ability, as well as the ability to combine all these into creative ways of taking advantage of what the technology can offer. A centre manager usually needs assistants for technical support, for managing resources and even the tutoring of students. Multimedia centres lend themselves to self-study and potentially self-directed learning, but this is often misunderstood. The simple existence of a multimedia centre does not automatically lead to students learning independently. Significant investment of time is essential for materials development and creating an atmosphere conducive to self-study. Unfortunately, administrators often have the mistaken belief that buying hardware by itself will meet the needs of the centre, allocating 90% of its budget to hardware and virtually ignoring software and staff training needs. '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_access_language_learning_centers '''Self-access language learning centres]' or independent learning centres have emerged partially independently and partially in response to these issues. In self-access learning, the focus is on developing learner autonomy through varying degrees of self-directed learning, as opposed to (or as a complement to) classroom learning. In many centres learners access materials and manage their learning independently, but they also have access to staff for help. Many self-access centres are heavy users of technology and an increasing number of them are now offering online self-access learning opportunities. Some centres have developed novel ways of supporting language learning outside the context of the language classroom (also called 'language support') by developing software to monitor students' self-directed learning and by offering online support from teachers. Centre managers and support staff may need to have new roles defined for them to support students’ efforts at self-directed learning: v. Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans (2001), who refer to a new job description, namely that of the "language adviser".' Internet ' '''The emergence of the '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web '''World Wide Web]' (now known simply as "the Web") in the early 1990s marked a significant change in the use of communications technology for all computer users. '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email Email]' and other forms of electronic communication had been in existence for many years, but the launch of '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic Mosaic], the first graphical '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser '''Web browser], in 1993 brought about a radical change in the ways in which we communicate electronically. The launch of the Web in the public arena immediately began to attract the attention of language teachers. Many language teachers were already familiar with the concept of '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext '''hypertext]' on stand-alone computers, which made it possible to set up non-sequential structured reading activities for language learners in which they could point to items of text or images on a page displayed on the computer screen and branch to any other pages, e.g. in a so-called "stack" as implemented in the '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperCard HyperCard]' program on Apple Mac computers. The Web took this one stage further by creating a world-wide hypertext system that enabled the user to branch to different pages on computers anywhere in the world simply by pointing and clicking at a piece of text or an image. This opened up access to thousands of authentic foreign-language websites to teachers and students that could be used in a variety of ways. A problem that arose, however, was that this could lead to a good deal of time-wasting if Web browsing was used in an unstructured way and language teachers responded by developing more structured activities and online exercises .Davies (2010) lists over 500 websites, where links to online exercises can be found, along with links to online dictionaries and encyclopaedias, concordancers, translation aids and other miscellaneous resources of interest to the language teacher and learner. ' The launch of the (free) '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_Potatoes '''Hot Potatoes]' (Holmes & Arneil) authoring tool, which was first demonstrated publicly at the EUROCALL 1998 conference, made it possible for language teachers to create their own online interactive exercises. Other useful tools are produced by the same authors. ' In its early days the Web could not compete seriously with multimedia CALL on CD-ROM and DVD. Sound and video quality was often poor, and interaction was slow. But now the Web has caught up. Sound and video are of high quality and interaction has improved tremendously, although this does depend on sufficient bandwidth being available, which is not always the case, especially in remote rural areas and developing countries. One area in which CD-ROMs and DVDs are still superior is in the presentation of listen/respond/playback activities, although such activities on the Web are continually improving. Since the early 2000s there has been a boom in the development of so-called '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0 '''Web 2.0]' applications. Contrary to popular opinion, Web 2.0 is not a new version of the Web, rather it implies a shift in emphasis from Web browsing, which is essentially a one-way process (from the Web to the end-user), to making use of Web applications in the same way as one uses applications on a desktop computer. It also implies more interaction and sharing. Walker, Davies & Hewer (2011: Section 2.1)[ list the following examples of Web 2.0 applications that language teachers are using:' *'Image storage and sharing' *'Social bookmarking' *'Discussion lists, blogs, wikis, social networking' *'Chat rooms, MUDs, MOOs and MUVEs (virtual worlds)' *'Podcasting' *'Audio tools' *'Video sharing applications and screen capture tools' *'Animation tools - comic strips, movies, etc.' *'Mashups' There is no doubt that the Web has proved to be a main focus for language teachers, who are making increasingly imaginative use of its wide range of facilities: see Dudeney (2007)and Thomas (2008) Above all, the use of Web 2.0 tools calls for a careful reexamination of the role of the teacher in the classroom (Richardson 2006). ' '''Human Language Technologies ' 'Human Language Technologies (HLT) comprise a number of areas of research and development that focus on the use of technology to facilitate communication in a multilingual information society. Human language technologies are areas of activity in departments of the European Commission that were formerly grouped under the heading '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_Engineering '''Language Engineering].' The subset of HLT that is of greatest interest to the language teacher is '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Language_Processing '''Natural Language Processing]' (NLP), especially the areas of '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_synthesis speech synthesis], '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_recognition '''speech recognition]' and '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing parsing].' '''Speech synthesis has improved immeasurably in recent years. It is often used in electronic dictionaries to enable learners to find out how words are pronounced. At word level, speech synthesis is quite effective, the artificial voice often closely resembling a human voice. At phrase level and sentence level, however, there are often problems of intonation, resulting in speech production that sounds unnatural even though it may be intelligible. Speech synthesis as embodied in '[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_To_Speech '''Text To Speech]' (TTS) applications is invaluable as a tool for unsighted or partially sighted people. Gupta & Schulze (2010: Section 4.1) list several examples of speech synthesis applications. ' Speech recognition is less advanced than speech synthesis. It has been used in a number of CALL programs, in which it is usually described as '''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Speech_Recognition '''Automatic Speech Recognition]' (ASR). ASR is not easy to implement. Ehsani & Knodt (1998) summarise the core problem as follows:' "Complex cognitive processes account for the human ability to associate acoustic signals with meanings and intentions. For a computer, on the other hand, speech is essentially a series of digital values. However, despite these differences, the core problem of speech recognition is the same for both humans and machines: namely, of finding the best match between a given speech sound and its corresponding word string. Automatic speech recognition technology attempts to simulate and optimize this process computationally." ''' '''Programs embodying ASR normally provide a native speaker model that the learner is requested to imitate, but the matching process is not 100% reliable and may result in a learner's perfectly intelligible attempt to pronounce a word or phrase being rejected. Parsing is used in a number of ways in CALL. Gupta & Schulze (2010: Section 5) describe how parsing may be used to analyse sentences, presenting the learner with a tree diagram that labels the constituent parts of speech of a sentence and shows the learner how the sentence is structured. ''' '''Parsing is also used in CALL programs to analyse the learner's input and diagnose errors. Davies (2002) writes: "Discrete error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response, pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities. ... Error analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into CALL via the disciplines of computational linguistics, e.g. Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who come into CALL via language teaching. ... An alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to parse the learner's response - so-called intelligent CALL (ICALL) - but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL programs (Matthews 1994) and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this approach as a threat to humanity . Impact ''' '''The question of the impact of CALL in language learning and teaching has been raised at regular intervals ever since computers first appeared in educational institutions Recent large-scale impact studies include the study edited by Fitzpatrick & Davies (2003) and the EACEA (2009) study, both of which were produced for the European Commission. 'A distinction needs to be made between the impact and the effectiveness of CALL. Impact may be measured quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of the uptake and use of ICT in teaching foreign languages, issues of availability of hardware and software, budgetary considerations, Internet access, teachers’ and learners' attitudes to the use of CALL, changes in the ways in which languages are learnt and taught, and paradigm shifts in teachers’ and learners’ roles. Effectiveness, on the other hand, usually focuses on assessing to what extent ICT is a more effective way of teaching foreign languages compared to using traditional methods - and this is more problematic as so many variables come into play. Worldwide, the picture of the impact of CALL is extremely varied. Most developed nations work comfortably with the new technologies, but developing nations are often beset with problems of costs and broadband connectivity. Evidence on the effectiveness of CALL - as with the impact of CALL - is extremely varied and many research questions still need to be addressed and answered. Hubbard (2002) presents the results of a CALL research survey that was sent to 120 CALL professionals from around the world asking them to articulate a CALL research question they would like to see answered. Some of the questions have been answered but many more remain open. Leakey (2011) offers an overview of current and past research in CALL and proposes a comprehensive model for evaluating the effectiveness of CALL platforms, programs and pedagogy. '